Era of Good Feelings
James Monroe
Elections of 1816 & 1820
Cultural Nationalism
Stuart, Peale, Trumball
Economic Nationalism
Tariff of 1816
Protective tariffs
Clay’s American System
Protective Tariff
National Bank
Internal Improvements
Monroe’s veto on internal improvements
Panic of 1819
Land speculation
Federalist Party
One-party system
Daniel Webster
John C. Calhoun
Political factions & sectional differences
The Marshall Court
Fletcher v. Peck (1810)
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Gibbons v. Ogden (1821)
Loose construction
Reasons for westward expansion
Cheap money
Balance of power
Tallmadge Amendment
Gradual elimination of slavery
Missouri Compromise (1820)
Sectionalism
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)
Treaty of 1818
Spanish Florida
Jackson’s military campaigns
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819)
Restored monarchies
Latin American revolutions
John Quincy Adams
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Population growth
Lancaster Turnpike
Turnpikes
National/Cumberland Rd.
Erie Canal
Canal systems
Steamboats
Robert Fulton
Clipper ships
Pony Express
Railroads
New western cities
Old Northwest
Physical mobility
Manufacturing
Eli Whitney
Cotton Gin
Interchangeable Parts
Corporations
Limited Liability
“Putting Out” system
Samuel Slater
Textile Mills
New England
Factory System
Lowell System
Child labor
Labor Unions
Skilled workers
Commercial v. Subsistent Farming
Specialization
King Cotton
Old Southwest
Market Revolution
Women
Social mobility
Economic mobility
Slavery
Indian Policy
Thursday, September 30, 2010
The Marshall Court
(1803) Marbury v. Madison
-William Marbury (one of Adams' midnight appointments), sued Secretary of State Madison to force delivery of his commission as a justice of the peace in the federal district; Marshall would not rule on it, because he said the law that gave the Supreme Court power to rule over such matter was unconstitutional
-established the policy of judicial review over federal legislation
-Precedent of the Supreme Court's power to rule on the constitutionality of federal laws
(1810) Fletcher v. Peck
-Georgia legislature issued extensive land grants to Yazoo Land Company; afterwards, it was considered corrupt, so there was a legislative session that repealed the action
-Court ruled that the original contract was valid and could not be broken
(1819) Dartmouth College v. Woodward
-Republicans back the president of the college, Federalists backed the trustees
-president try to make it a public institution (instead of private) by having the charter revoked
-ruled that even though charter was granted by the king, it was still a contract and thus could not be changed without the consent of both parties
(1819) McCulloch v. Maryland
-state of MD tried to levy a tax on the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States (to protect the competitive position of state banks)
-ruled against state, b/c state had no right to control an agency of the federal gov't
(1824) Gibbons v. Ogden
-NY state had granted monopoly to Ogden of Hudson River. Gibbons obtained a permit from Congress to operate steamboat there
-Ogden sued, and state ruled in his favor
-Marshall ruled that it was interstate commerce and could not be regulated by a state (only Congress could) - the monopoly was then voided
(1831) Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
-Court refused to hear case, which the Cherokees brought forward, b/c GA had abolished their tribal legislature and courts (said that because the tribe was a "foreign nation, the decision should be made by the Supreme Court)
-Marshall said they really were not foreign nations (they just had special status)
(1832) Worcester v.Georgia
-GA state gov't said any US citizen who wanted to enter Cherokee territory had to obtain permission from the governor
-GA law was overturned, b/c the federal gov't had the constitutionally mandated role of regulating trade with the tribes
-Jackson said of Marshall "John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it"
Era of Good Feelings?
Era of Good Feelings? Consider the years, 1815-1825 (Monroe) as well as nationalism and sectionalism
Sectionalism (rainy day)
Tariff of 1816- higher and first protective tax to aid industries in the North, hurt southerners
Tallmadge Amendment-defeated bill called for gradual emancipation of slavery in Missouri, began slavery debate
Missouri Compromise- growing problems with the expansion of slavery in territories, slavery will eventually divide the nation
Slave Revolts- Denmark Vessey, called for local action to invoke stronger slave codes in the South
Election of 1820 & 1824
1820- one-party system following death of Federalist Party (Hartford Convention in 1816)
1824- Electoral vote divided between 4 regional candidates with Quincy Adams winning after the “corrupt bargain” with Henry Clay, rise of Whig Party
Political and sectional differences became more intense
Calhoun moves from nationalist to states’ rights supporter
Panic of 1819
Each section hurt by depression but more severe in the West due to the tightening of credit by the Second Bank of the US, South and West (advocated easy credit) blamed Bank and the eastern establishment for the Panic
Westward Movement (beginnings of Manifest Destiny)
With migration westward, inevitable clash between the rural areas of the South and West with the urban areas of the East as well as slavery in the newly acquired territories
King Cotton
Eli Whitney’s cotton gin and cheap, available lands in the West makes the South more dependent on slave labor, growth of the factory system and corporations as well as interchangeable parts in the Northeast (Slater, Lowell system, textile mills, unions)
Immigration
Old Immigrants (Irish and Germans) move to the NE and Midwest
American Colonization Society-move slaves back to Africa
Nationalism (sunny day)
War of 1812
US gained respect for other nations after surviving two wars with Britain
Became more economically self-sufficient
Evokes feelings of patriotism, national celebrations and use of the flag
US entering era of unlimited prosperity
Monroe Doctrine
Strong interventionist foreign policy again Britain who sought to recolonize the Central and South America
Literature
James Fenimore Cooper & Washington Irving (American writers/American themes)
Artists
Patriotic themes in painting of Gilbert Stuart, Charles Wilson Peale, John Trumball and school books (Webster’s dictionary)
Clay’s American System (cooperation of Federalist program by Democrats)
1. protective tariffs (helps East)
2. national bank (aid to all sections)
3. internal improvements (helps South & West), vetoed due to constitutional concerns
Marshall’s Supreme Court
Gave more power to the national government from the states as well as the Supreme Court (Marbury v. Madison)
McCulloch v. Maryland, Fletcher v. Peck, Gibbons v. Ogden, Dartmouth College v. Woodward
Transportation
Turnpikes, canals (linked east & west), steamships, railroads
Link nation and facilitate movement of goods and people
Led to Market Revolution and National Economy
One-Party System
Monroe wins all but one electoral vote in Election of 1820
Florida
Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 cedes Florida to the US from Spain
Barbary Pirates-finally defeated, created euphoria
Sectionalism (rainy day)
Tariff of 1816- higher and first protective tax to aid industries in the North, hurt southerners
Tallmadge Amendment-defeated bill called for gradual emancipation of slavery in Missouri, began slavery debate
Missouri Compromise- growing problems with the expansion of slavery in territories, slavery will eventually divide the nation
Slave Revolts- Denmark Vessey, called for local action to invoke stronger slave codes in the South
Election of 1820 & 1824
1820- one-party system following death of Federalist Party (Hartford Convention in 1816)
1824- Electoral vote divided between 4 regional candidates with Quincy Adams winning after the “corrupt bargain” with Henry Clay, rise of Whig Party
Political and sectional differences became more intense
Calhoun moves from nationalist to states’ rights supporter
Panic of 1819
Each section hurt by depression but more severe in the West due to the tightening of credit by the Second Bank of the US, South and West (advocated easy credit) blamed Bank and the eastern establishment for the Panic
Westward Movement (beginnings of Manifest Destiny)
With migration westward, inevitable clash between the rural areas of the South and West with the urban areas of the East as well as slavery in the newly acquired territories
King Cotton
Eli Whitney’s cotton gin and cheap, available lands in the West makes the South more dependent on slave labor, growth of the factory system and corporations as well as interchangeable parts in the Northeast (Slater, Lowell system, textile mills, unions)
Immigration
Old Immigrants (Irish and Germans) move to the NE and Midwest
American Colonization Society-move slaves back to Africa
Nationalism (sunny day)
War of 1812
US gained respect for other nations after surviving two wars with Britain
Became more economically self-sufficient
Evokes feelings of patriotism, national celebrations and use of the flag
US entering era of unlimited prosperity
Monroe Doctrine
Strong interventionist foreign policy again Britain who sought to recolonize the Central and South America
Literature
James Fenimore Cooper & Washington Irving (American writers/American themes)
Artists
Patriotic themes in painting of Gilbert Stuart, Charles Wilson Peale, John Trumball and school books (Webster’s dictionary)
Clay’s American System (cooperation of Federalist program by Democrats)
1. protective tariffs (helps East)
2. national bank (aid to all sections)
3. internal improvements (helps South & West), vetoed due to constitutional concerns
Marshall’s Supreme Court
Gave more power to the national government from the states as well as the Supreme Court (Marbury v. Madison)
McCulloch v. Maryland, Fletcher v. Peck, Gibbons v. Ogden, Dartmouth College v. Woodward
Transportation
Turnpikes, canals (linked east & west), steamships, railroads
Link nation and facilitate movement of goods and people
Led to Market Revolution and National Economy
One-Party System
Monroe wins all but one electoral vote in Election of 1820
Florida
Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 cedes Florida to the US from Spain
Barbary Pirates-finally defeated, created euphoria
Tuesday, September 28, 2010
This Date in History-Sept. 28
Sep 28, 1781:
Battle of Yorktown begins
On this day in 1781, General George Washington, commanding a force of 17,000 French and Continental troops, begins the siege known as the Battle of Yorktown against British General Lord Charles Cornwallis and a contingent of 9,000 British troops at Yorktown, Virginia, in the most important battle of the Revolutionary War.
Earlier, in a stroke of luck for the Patriots, the French fleet commanded by Francois, Count de Grasse, departed St. Domingue (the then-French colony that is now Haiti) for the Chesapeake Bay, just as Cornwallis chose Yorktown, at the mouth of the Chesapeake, as his base. Washington realized that it was time to act. He ordered Marquis de Lafayette and an American army of 5,000 troops to block Cornwallis' escape from Yorktown by land while the French naval fleet blocked the British escape by sea. By September 28, Washington had completely encircled Cornwallis and Yorktown with the combined forces of Continental and French troops. After three weeks of non-stop bombardment, both day and night, from cannon and artillery, Cornwallis surrendered to Washington in the field at Yorktown on October 17, 1781, effectively ending the War for Independence.
Pleading illness, Cornwallis did not attend the formal surrender ceremony, held on October 19. Instead, his second in command, General Charles O'Hara, carried Cornwallis' sword to the American and French commanders.
Although the war persisted on the high seas and in other theaters, the Patriot victory at Yorktown ended fighting in the American colonies. Peace negotiations began in 1782, and on September 3, 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, formally recognizing the United States as a free and independent nation after eight years of war.
Battle of Yorktown begins
On this day in 1781, General George Washington, commanding a force of 17,000 French and Continental troops, begins the siege known as the Battle of Yorktown against British General Lord Charles Cornwallis and a contingent of 9,000 British troops at Yorktown, Virginia, in the most important battle of the Revolutionary War.
Earlier, in a stroke of luck for the Patriots, the French fleet commanded by Francois, Count de Grasse, departed St. Domingue (the then-French colony that is now Haiti) for the Chesapeake Bay, just as Cornwallis chose Yorktown, at the mouth of the Chesapeake, as his base. Washington realized that it was time to act. He ordered Marquis de Lafayette and an American army of 5,000 troops to block Cornwallis' escape from Yorktown by land while the French naval fleet blocked the British escape by sea. By September 28, Washington had completely encircled Cornwallis and Yorktown with the combined forces of Continental and French troops. After three weeks of non-stop bombardment, both day and night, from cannon and artillery, Cornwallis surrendered to Washington in the field at Yorktown on October 17, 1781, effectively ending the War for Independence.
Pleading illness, Cornwallis did not attend the formal surrender ceremony, held on October 19. Instead, his second in command, General Charles O'Hara, carried Cornwallis' sword to the American and French commanders.
Although the war persisted on the high seas and in other theaters, the Patriot victory at Yorktown ended fighting in the American colonies. Peace negotiations began in 1782, and on September 3, 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, formally recognizing the United States as a free and independent nation after eight years of war.
Monday, September 27, 2010
This Date in History-Sept. 27
September 27: General Interest
1779 : John Adams appointed to negotiate peace terms with British
On this day in 1779, the Continental Congress appoints John Adams to travel to France as minister plenipotentiary in charge of negotiating treaties of peace and commerce with Great Britain during the Revolutionary War.
Adams had traveled to Paris in 1778 to negotiate an alliance with France, but had been unceremoniously dismissed when Congress chose Benjamin Franklin as sole commissioner. Soon after returning to Massachusetts in mid-1779, Adams was elected as a delegate to the state convention to draw up a new constitution; he was involved in these duties when he learned of his new diplomatic commission. Accompanied by his young sons John Quincy and Charles, Adams sailed for Europe that November aboard the French ship Sensible, which sprang a leak early in the voyage and missed its original destination (Brest), instead landing at El Ferrol, in northwestern Spain. After an arduous journey by mule train across the Pyrenees and into France, Adams and his group reached Paris in early February 1780.
While in Paris, Adams wrote to Congress almost daily (sometimes several letters a day) sharing news about British politics, British and French naval activities and his general perspective on European affairs. Conditions were unfavorable for peace at the time, as the war was going badly for the Continental Army, and the blunt and sometimes confrontational Adams clashed with the French government, especially the powerful Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes. In mid-June, Adams began a correspondence with Vergennes in which he pushed for French naval assistance, antagonizing both Vergennes and Franklin, who brought the matter to the attention of Congress.
By that time, Adams had departed France for Holland, where he was attempting to negotiate a loan from the Dutch. Before the end of the year, he was named American minister to the Netherlands, replacing Henry Laurens, who was captured at sea by the British. In June 1781, capitulating to pressure from Vergennes and other French diplomats, Congress acted to revoke Adams' sole powers as peacemaker with Britain, appointing Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Laurens to negotiate alongside him.
The tide of the war was turning in America's favor, and Adams returned to Paris in October 1782 to take up his part in the peace negotiations. As Jefferson didn't travel to Europe and Laurens was in failing health after his release from the Tower of London, it was left to Adams, Jay and Franklin to represent American interests. Adams and Jay both distrusted the French government (in contrast with Franklin), but their differences of opinion and diplomatic styles allowed the team to negotiate favorable terms in the Peace of Paris (1783). The following year, Jefferson arrived to take Adams' place as American minister to France, forming a lifelong bond with Adams and his family before the latter left to take up his new post as American ambassador to London and continue his distinguished record of foreign service on behalf of the new nation.
1779 : John Adams appointed to negotiate peace terms with British
On this day in 1779, the Continental Congress appoints John Adams to travel to France as minister plenipotentiary in charge of negotiating treaties of peace and commerce with Great Britain during the Revolutionary War.
Adams had traveled to Paris in 1778 to negotiate an alliance with France, but had been unceremoniously dismissed when Congress chose Benjamin Franklin as sole commissioner. Soon after returning to Massachusetts in mid-1779, Adams was elected as a delegate to the state convention to draw up a new constitution; he was involved in these duties when he learned of his new diplomatic commission. Accompanied by his young sons John Quincy and Charles, Adams sailed for Europe that November aboard the French ship Sensible, which sprang a leak early in the voyage and missed its original destination (Brest), instead landing at El Ferrol, in northwestern Spain. After an arduous journey by mule train across the Pyrenees and into France, Adams and his group reached Paris in early February 1780.
While in Paris, Adams wrote to Congress almost daily (sometimes several letters a day) sharing news about British politics, British and French naval activities and his general perspective on European affairs. Conditions were unfavorable for peace at the time, as the war was going badly for the Continental Army, and the blunt and sometimes confrontational Adams clashed with the French government, especially the powerful Foreign Minister Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes. In mid-June, Adams began a correspondence with Vergennes in which he pushed for French naval assistance, antagonizing both Vergennes and Franklin, who brought the matter to the attention of Congress.
By that time, Adams had departed France for Holland, where he was attempting to negotiate a loan from the Dutch. Before the end of the year, he was named American minister to the Netherlands, replacing Henry Laurens, who was captured at sea by the British. In June 1781, capitulating to pressure from Vergennes and other French diplomats, Congress acted to revoke Adams' sole powers as peacemaker with Britain, appointing Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Laurens to negotiate alongside him.
The tide of the war was turning in America's favor, and Adams returned to Paris in October 1782 to take up his part in the peace negotiations. As Jefferson didn't travel to Europe and Laurens was in failing health after his release from the Tower of London, it was left to Adams, Jay and Franklin to represent American interests. Adams and Jay both distrusted the French government (in contrast with Franklin), but their differences of opinion and diplomatic styles allowed the team to negotiate favorable terms in the Peace of Paris (1783). The following year, Jefferson arrived to take Adams' place as American minister to France, forming a lifelong bond with Adams and his family before the latter left to take up his new post as American ambassador to London and continue his distinguished record of foreign service on behalf of the new nation.
Sunday, September 26, 2010
This Date in History-Sept. 26
September 26: General Interest
1960 : First Kennedy-Nixon debate
For the first time in U.S. history, a debate between major party presidential candidates is shown on television. The presidential hopefuls, John F. Kennedy, a Democratic senator of Massachusetts, and Richard M. Nixon, the vice president of the United States, met in a Chicago studio to discuss U.S. domestic matters.
Kennedy emerged the apparent winner from this first of four televised debates, partly owing to his greater ease before the camera than Nixon, who, unlike Kennedy, seemed nervous and declined to wear makeup. Nixon fared better in the second and third debates, and on October 21 the candidates met to discuss foreign affairs in their fourth and final debate. Less than three weeks later, on November 8, Kennedy won 49.7 percent of the popular vote in one of the closest presidential elections in U.S. history, surpassing by a fraction the 49.6 percent received by his Republican opponent.
One year after leaving the vice presidency, Nixon returned to politics, winning the Republican nomination for governor of California. Although he lost the election, Nixon returned to the national stage in 1968 in a successful bid for the presidency. Like Lyndon Johnson in 1964, Nixon declined to debate his opponent in the 1968 presidential campaign. Televised presidential debates returned in 1976, and have been held in every presidential campaign since.
1960 : First Kennedy-Nixon debate
For the first time in U.S. history, a debate between major party presidential candidates is shown on television. The presidential hopefuls, John F. Kennedy, a Democratic senator of Massachusetts, and Richard M. Nixon, the vice president of the United States, met in a Chicago studio to discuss U.S. domestic matters.
Kennedy emerged the apparent winner from this first of four televised debates, partly owing to his greater ease before the camera than Nixon, who, unlike Kennedy, seemed nervous and declined to wear makeup. Nixon fared better in the second and third debates, and on October 21 the candidates met to discuss foreign affairs in their fourth and final debate. Less than three weeks later, on November 8, Kennedy won 49.7 percent of the popular vote in one of the closest presidential elections in U.S. history, surpassing by a fraction the 49.6 percent received by his Republican opponent.
One year after leaving the vice presidency, Nixon returned to politics, winning the Republican nomination for governor of California. Although he lost the election, Nixon returned to the national stage in 1968 in a successful bid for the presidency. Like Lyndon Johnson in 1964, Nixon declined to debate his opponent in the 1968 presidential campaign. Televised presidential debates returned in 1976, and have been held in every presidential campaign since.
This Date in History-Sept. 25
September 25: General Interest
1957 : Central High School integrated
Under escort from the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division, nine black students enter all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Three weeks earlier, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus had surrounded the school with National Guard troops to prevent its federal court-ordered racial integration. After a tense standoff, President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent 1,000 army paratroopers to Little Rock to enforce the court order.
On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that racial segregation in educational facilities was unconstitutional. Five days later, the Little Rock School Board issued a statement saying it would comply with the decision when the Supreme Court outlined the method and time frame in which desegregation should be implemented.
Arkansas was at the time among the more progressive Southern states in regard to racial issues. The University of Arkansas School of Law was integrated in 1949, and the Little Rock Public Library in 1951. Even before the Supreme Court ordered integration to proceed "with all deliberate speed," the Little Rock School Board in 1955 unanimously adopted a plan of integration to begin in 1957 at the high school level. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed suit, arguing the plan was too gradual, but a federal judge dismissed the suit, saying that the school board was acting in "utmost good faith." Meanwhile, Little Rock's public buses were desegregated. By 1957, seven out of Arkansas' eight state universities were integrated.
In the spring of 1957, there were 517 black students who lived in the Central High School district. Eighty expressed an interest in attending Central in the fall, and they were interviewed by the Little Rock School Board, which narrowed down the number of candidates to 17. Eight of those students later decided to remain at all-black Horace Mann High School, leaving the "Little Rock Nine" to forge their way into Little Rock's premier high school.
In August 1957, the newly formed Mother's League of Central High School won a temporary injunction from the county chancellor to block integration of the school, charging that it "could lead to violence." Federal District Judge Ronald Davies nullified the injunction on August 30. On September 2, Governor Orval Faubus--a staunch segregationist--called out the Arkansas National Guard to surround Central High School and prevent integration, ostensibly to prevent the bloodshed he claimed desegregation would cause. The next day, Judge Davies ordered integrated classes to begin on September 4.
That morning, 100 armed National Guard troops encircled Central High School. A mob of 400 white civilians gathered and turned ugly when the black students began to arrive, shouting racial epithets and threatening the teenagers with violence. The National Guard troops refused to let the black students pass and used their clubs to control the crowd. One of the nine, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford, was surrounded by the mob, which threatened to lynch her. She was finally led to safety by a sympathetic white woman.
Little Rock Mayor Woodrow Mann condemned Faubus' decision to call out the National Guard, but the governor defended his action, reiterating that he did so to prevent violence. The governor also stated that integration would occur in Little Rock when and if a majority of people chose to support it. Faubus' defiance of Judge Davies' court order was the first major test of Brown v. Board of Education and the biggest challenge of the federal government's authority over the states since the Reconstruction Era.
The standoff continued, and on September 20 Judge Davies ruled that Faubus had used the troops to prevent integration, not to preserve law and order as he claimed. Faubus had no choice but to withdraw the National Guard troops. Authority over the explosive situation was put in the hands of the Little Rock Police Department.
On September 23, as a mob of 1,000 whites milled around outside Central High School, the nine black students managed to gain access to a side door. However, the mob became unruly when it learned the black students were inside, and the police evacuated them out of fear for their safety. That evening, President Eisenhower issued a special proclamation calling for opponents of the federal court order to "cease and desist." On September 24, Little Rock's mayor sent a telegram to the president asking him to send troops to maintain order and complete the integration process. Eisenhower immediately federalized the Arkansas National Guard and approved the deployment of U.S. troops to Little Rock. That evening, from the White House, the president delivered a nationally televised address in which he explained that he had taken the action to defend the rule of law and prevent "mob rule" and "anarchy." On September 25, the Little Rock Nine entered the school under heavily armed guard.
Troops remained at Central High School throughout the school year, but still the black students were subjected to verbal and physical assaults from a faction of white students. Melba Patillo, one of the nine, had acid thrown in her eyes, and Elizabeth Eckford was pushed down a flight of stairs. The three male students in the group were subjected to more conventional beatings. Minnijean Brown was suspended after dumping a bowl of chili over the head of a taunting white student. She was later suspended for the rest of the year after continuing to fight back. The other eight students consistently turned the other cheek. On May 27, 1958, Ernest Green, the only senior in the group, became the first black to graduate from Central High School.
Governor Faubus continued to fight the school board's integration plan, and in September 1958 he ordered Little Rock's three high schools closed rather than permit integration. Many Little Rock students lost a year of education as the legal fight over desegregation continued. In 1959, a federal court struck down Faubus' school-closing law, and in August 1959 Little Rock's white high schools opened a month early with black students in attendance. All grades in Little Rock public schools were finally integrated in 1972.
1957 : Central High School integrated
Under escort from the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division, nine black students enter all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Three weeks earlier, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus had surrounded the school with National Guard troops to prevent its federal court-ordered racial integration. After a tense standoff, President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent 1,000 army paratroopers to Little Rock to enforce the court order.
On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that racial segregation in educational facilities was unconstitutional. Five days later, the Little Rock School Board issued a statement saying it would comply with the decision when the Supreme Court outlined the method and time frame in which desegregation should be implemented.
Arkansas was at the time among the more progressive Southern states in regard to racial issues. The University of Arkansas School of Law was integrated in 1949, and the Little Rock Public Library in 1951. Even before the Supreme Court ordered integration to proceed "with all deliberate speed," the Little Rock School Board in 1955 unanimously adopted a plan of integration to begin in 1957 at the high school level. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed suit, arguing the plan was too gradual, but a federal judge dismissed the suit, saying that the school board was acting in "utmost good faith." Meanwhile, Little Rock's public buses were desegregated. By 1957, seven out of Arkansas' eight state universities were integrated.
In the spring of 1957, there were 517 black students who lived in the Central High School district. Eighty expressed an interest in attending Central in the fall, and they were interviewed by the Little Rock School Board, which narrowed down the number of candidates to 17. Eight of those students later decided to remain at all-black Horace Mann High School, leaving the "Little Rock Nine" to forge their way into Little Rock's premier high school.
In August 1957, the newly formed Mother's League of Central High School won a temporary injunction from the county chancellor to block integration of the school, charging that it "could lead to violence." Federal District Judge Ronald Davies nullified the injunction on August 30. On September 2, Governor Orval Faubus--a staunch segregationist--called out the Arkansas National Guard to surround Central High School and prevent integration, ostensibly to prevent the bloodshed he claimed desegregation would cause. The next day, Judge Davies ordered integrated classes to begin on September 4.
That morning, 100 armed National Guard troops encircled Central High School. A mob of 400 white civilians gathered and turned ugly when the black students began to arrive, shouting racial epithets and threatening the teenagers with violence. The National Guard troops refused to let the black students pass and used their clubs to control the crowd. One of the nine, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford, was surrounded by the mob, which threatened to lynch her. She was finally led to safety by a sympathetic white woman.
Little Rock Mayor Woodrow Mann condemned Faubus' decision to call out the National Guard, but the governor defended his action, reiterating that he did so to prevent violence. The governor also stated that integration would occur in Little Rock when and if a majority of people chose to support it. Faubus' defiance of Judge Davies' court order was the first major test of Brown v. Board of Education and the biggest challenge of the federal government's authority over the states since the Reconstruction Era.
The standoff continued, and on September 20 Judge Davies ruled that Faubus had used the troops to prevent integration, not to preserve law and order as he claimed. Faubus had no choice but to withdraw the National Guard troops. Authority over the explosive situation was put in the hands of the Little Rock Police Department.
On September 23, as a mob of 1,000 whites milled around outside Central High School, the nine black students managed to gain access to a side door. However, the mob became unruly when it learned the black students were inside, and the police evacuated them out of fear for their safety. That evening, President Eisenhower issued a special proclamation calling for opponents of the federal court order to "cease and desist." On September 24, Little Rock's mayor sent a telegram to the president asking him to send troops to maintain order and complete the integration process. Eisenhower immediately federalized the Arkansas National Guard and approved the deployment of U.S. troops to Little Rock. That evening, from the White House, the president delivered a nationally televised address in which he explained that he had taken the action to defend the rule of law and prevent "mob rule" and "anarchy." On September 25, the Little Rock Nine entered the school under heavily armed guard.
Troops remained at Central High School throughout the school year, but still the black students were subjected to verbal and physical assaults from a faction of white students. Melba Patillo, one of the nine, had acid thrown in her eyes, and Elizabeth Eckford was pushed down a flight of stairs. The three male students in the group were subjected to more conventional beatings. Minnijean Brown was suspended after dumping a bowl of chili over the head of a taunting white student. She was later suspended for the rest of the year after continuing to fight back. The other eight students consistently turned the other cheek. On May 27, 1958, Ernest Green, the only senior in the group, became the first black to graduate from Central High School.
Governor Faubus continued to fight the school board's integration plan, and in September 1958 he ordered Little Rock's three high schools closed rather than permit integration. Many Little Rock students lost a year of education as the legal fight over desegregation continued. In 1959, a federal court struck down Faubus' school-closing law, and in August 1959 Little Rock's white high schools opened a month early with black students in attendance. All grades in Little Rock public schools were finally integrated in 1972.
Friday, September 24, 2010
This Date in History-Sept. 24
September 24: General Interest
1789 : The First Supreme Court
The Judiciary Act of 1789 is passed by Congress and signed by President George Washington, establishing the Supreme Court of the United States as a tribunal made up of six justices who were to serve on the court until death or retirement. That day, President Washington nominated John Jay to preside as chief justice, and John Rutledge, William Cushing, John Blair, Robert Harrison, and James Wilson to be associate justices. On September 26, all six appointments were confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
The U.S. Supreme Court was established by Article 3 of the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution granted the Supreme Court ultimate jurisdiction over all laws, especially those in which their constitutionality was at issue. The high court was also designated to oversee cases concerning treaties of the United States, foreign diplomats, admiralty practice, and maritime jurisdiction. On February 1, 1790, the first session of the U.S. Supreme Court was held in New York City's Royal Exchange Building.
The U.S. Supreme Court grew into the most important judicial body in the world in terms of its central place in the American political order. According to the Constitution, the size of the court is set by Congress, and the number of justices varied during the 19th century before stabilizing in 1869 at nine. In times of constitutional crisis, the nation's highest court has always played a definitive role in resolving, for better or worse, the great issues of the time.
1789 : The First Supreme Court
The Judiciary Act of 1789 is passed by Congress and signed by President George Washington, establishing the Supreme Court of the United States as a tribunal made up of six justices who were to serve on the court until death or retirement. That day, President Washington nominated John Jay to preside as chief justice, and John Rutledge, William Cushing, John Blair, Robert Harrison, and James Wilson to be associate justices. On September 26, all six appointments were confirmed by the U.S. Senate.
The U.S. Supreme Court was established by Article 3 of the U.S. Constitution. The Constitution granted the Supreme Court ultimate jurisdiction over all laws, especially those in which their constitutionality was at issue. The high court was also designated to oversee cases concerning treaties of the United States, foreign diplomats, admiralty practice, and maritime jurisdiction. On February 1, 1790, the first session of the U.S. Supreme Court was held in New York City's Royal Exchange Building.
The U.S. Supreme Court grew into the most important judicial body in the world in terms of its central place in the American political order. According to the Constitution, the size of the court is set by Congress, and the number of justices varied during the 19th century before stabilizing in 1869 at nine. In times of constitutional crisis, the nation's highest court has always played a definitive role in resolving, for better or worse, the great issues of the time.
Sample DBQs
French and Indian War DBQ
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap04_frq_ushistory_36180.pdf
American Revolution DBQ
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/_ap05_frq_us_history_45555.pdf
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap04_frq_ushistory_36180.pdf
American Revolution DBQ
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/_ap05_frq_us_history_45555.pdf
Federalists v. Democratic-Republicans
Federalist Party
Originated from support of the Constitution (Federalist Papers)
Nominated John Adams for President in 1796
Died as a result of Hamilton’s death in 1804 and the Hartford Convention (1814) during the War of 1812, Beginnings of the brief one-party system under Monroe (Era of Good Feelings?)
Alexander Hamilton and John Adams
Loose interpretation of the Constitution
Supported a strong central govt.
Pro-British
Large peacetime army and navy
(Success)Aid to business, national bank, tariffs to support infant industries, (Hamilton’s Economic System)
Northern businessmen and large landowners (commercial classes)
Particularly strong in New England
Distrust of the masses
Democratic-Republican Party
Absorbed many traits of the Anti-Federalist Party
Transformed into the Democratic Party under Andrew Jackson in the 1830’s
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison
Strict interpretation of the Constitution (Did Jefferson live up to these ideals?)
Weak central govt. (power given to states)
Pro-French
Small peacetime army and navy
Favored agriculture, no national bank, opposed tariffs
Skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners
Strong in the South and West, aided by Louisiana Purchase in 1803
Originated from support of the Constitution (Federalist Papers)
Nominated John Adams for President in 1796
Died as a result of Hamilton’s death in 1804 and the Hartford Convention (1814) during the War of 1812, Beginnings of the brief one-party system under Monroe (Era of Good Feelings?)
Alexander Hamilton and John Adams
Loose interpretation of the Constitution
Supported a strong central govt.
Pro-British
Large peacetime army and navy
(Success)Aid to business, national bank, tariffs to support infant industries, (Hamilton’s Economic System)
Northern businessmen and large landowners (commercial classes)
Particularly strong in New England
Distrust of the masses
Democratic-Republican Party
Absorbed many traits of the Anti-Federalist Party
Transformed into the Democratic Party under Andrew Jackson in the 1830’s
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison
Strict interpretation of the Constitution (Did Jefferson live up to these ideals?)
Weak central govt. (power given to states)
Pro-French
Small peacetime army and navy
Favored agriculture, no national bank, opposed tariffs
Skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners
Strong in the South and West, aided by Louisiana Purchase in 1803
American Revolution and the War of 1812
American Revolution (1775-1783)
Causes: Taxation of colonies following the French and Indian War which reversed the British policy of salutary neglect
Began: British shots fired at Lexington & Concord in April 1775
US Leaders: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, Nathanael Greene, Horatio Gates, Francis Marion, John Burgoyne, George Rogers Clark
British Leaders: King George III, Charles Cornwallis, Thomas Gage, William Howe
Battles: Bunker Hill, Princeton, Trenton, Saratoga, Kings Mountain, Cowpens, Yorktown
Outcome: Treaty of Paris- British recognized existence of the US as an independent nation, Mississippi River would be its western boundary, Americans would have fishing rights off the Canadian coast, American would pay debts owned to the British merchants and Loyalists claims for confiscated property
Legacy: Declaration of Independence, US wavers under the weak Articles of Confederation that led the creation of our Constitution
US Deaths: 6824
War of 1812 (1812-1815)
Causes: Continued British violation of US neutrality rights as sea, trouble with the British and Indians on the western frontier, rise of the War Hawks from the South & West
US President: James Madison
US Leaders: Oliver Hazard Perry, William Henry Harrison (Tippecanoe), Thomas MacDonough, Andrew Jackson (Old Hickory)
Battles: Invasion of Canada, Lake Erie, Thames, Lake Champlain, Horseshoe Bend, New Orleans, Fort McHenry, Invasion of Washington, DC
Outcome: Treaty of Ghent- Halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to prewar claimant, recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the US
Legacy: US gained respect of other nations, US came to accept Canada as a neighbor and a part of the British Empire, Federalist Party ended due to actions at the Hartford Convention, talk of succession and disunion set a precedent later used by the South, Indians forced to surrender large areas to white settlements, US took a big step toward self-sufficiency due to British naval blockade, war heroes would emerge as the new generation of political leaders, strong feeling of American nationalism and a growing belief that the future lay in the West away from Europe
US Deaths: 2260
Causes: Taxation of colonies following the French and Indian War which reversed the British policy of salutary neglect
Began: British shots fired at Lexington & Concord in April 1775
US Leaders: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, Nathanael Greene, Horatio Gates, Francis Marion, John Burgoyne, George Rogers Clark
British Leaders: King George III, Charles Cornwallis, Thomas Gage, William Howe
Battles: Bunker Hill, Princeton, Trenton, Saratoga, Kings Mountain, Cowpens, Yorktown
Outcome: Treaty of Paris- British recognized existence of the US as an independent nation, Mississippi River would be its western boundary, Americans would have fishing rights off the Canadian coast, American would pay debts owned to the British merchants and Loyalists claims for confiscated property
Legacy: Declaration of Independence, US wavers under the weak Articles of Confederation that led the creation of our Constitution
US Deaths: 6824
War of 1812 (1812-1815)
Causes: Continued British violation of US neutrality rights as sea, trouble with the British and Indians on the western frontier, rise of the War Hawks from the South & West
US President: James Madison
US Leaders: Oliver Hazard Perry, William Henry Harrison (Tippecanoe), Thomas MacDonough, Andrew Jackson (Old Hickory)
Battles: Invasion of Canada, Lake Erie, Thames, Lake Champlain, Horseshoe Bend, New Orleans, Fort McHenry, Invasion of Washington, DC
Outcome: Treaty of Ghent- Halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to prewar claimant, recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the US
Legacy: US gained respect of other nations, US came to accept Canada as a neighbor and a part of the British Empire, Federalist Party ended due to actions at the Hartford Convention, talk of succession and disunion set a precedent later used by the South, Indians forced to surrender large areas to white settlements, US took a big step toward self-sufficiency due to British naval blockade, war heroes would emerge as the new generation of political leaders, strong feeling of American nationalism and a growing belief that the future lay in the West away from Europe
US Deaths: 2260
Chapter 7 Terms
Chapter 7: Age of Jefferson
Jefferson’s Inaugural Address
Thomas Jefferson
National Bank
Debt-repayment plan
Neutrality
Military spending
Federal jobs
Excise Tax
National Debt
Political Patronage
Napoleon
Toussaint L’Ouverture (Haiti)
Right of deposit
Louisiana Purchase
Strict Construction
Agrarian Society
Louis & Clark Expedition
John Marshall
Midnight Judges
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Judicial Review
Judicial impeachments
Samuel Chase
Election of 1804
“Quids”
Aaron Burr
Secession Conspiracy
“The Duel”
Burr’s Treason Trial
Barbary Pirates
Napoleonic Wars
Blockades
Impressment
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair
Embargo Act of 1807
“OGRABME”
Merchant Marine
Election of 1808
James Madison
Nonintercourse Act of 1909
Macon’s Bill No. 10
Napoleon’s deception
Causes of the War
Free seas & trade
Impressment
Frontier Pressures
Tecumseh & Prophet
William Henry Harrison
Battle of Tippecancoe
War Hawks
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Declaration of War
Election of 1812
War of 1812 (Mr. Madison’s War)
Opposition to War
New England merchants
Federalists
Quids
Invasion of Canada
Constitution (Old Ironsides)
Privateers
English naval blockade
Oliver Hazard Perry
Thomas MacDonough
Burning of Washington, DC
Francis Scott Key
Andrew Jackson
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Creek Nation
Battle of New Orleans
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Hartford Convention
Secession
War of 1812 Legacy (see pg. 132)
Nationalism
Second War of Independence
Jefferson’s Inaugural Address
Thomas Jefferson
National Bank
Debt-repayment plan
Neutrality
Military spending
Federal jobs
Excise Tax
National Debt
Political Patronage
Napoleon
Toussaint L’Ouverture (Haiti)
Right of deposit
Louisiana Purchase
Strict Construction
Agrarian Society
Louis & Clark Expedition
John Marshall
Midnight Judges
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Judicial Review
Judicial impeachments
Samuel Chase
Election of 1804
“Quids”
Aaron Burr
Secession Conspiracy
“The Duel”
Burr’s Treason Trial
Barbary Pirates
Napoleonic Wars
Blockades
Impressment
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair
Embargo Act of 1807
“OGRABME”
Merchant Marine
Election of 1808
James Madison
Nonintercourse Act of 1909
Macon’s Bill No. 10
Napoleon’s deception
Causes of the War
Free seas & trade
Impressment
Frontier Pressures
Tecumseh & Prophet
William Henry Harrison
Battle of Tippecancoe
War Hawks
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Declaration of War
Election of 1812
War of 1812 (Mr. Madison’s War)
Opposition to War
New England merchants
Federalists
Quids
Invasion of Canada
Constitution (Old Ironsides)
Privateers
English naval blockade
Oliver Hazard Perry
Thomas MacDonough
Burning of Washington, DC
Francis Scott Key
Andrew Jackson
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Creek Nation
Battle of New Orleans
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Hartford Convention
Secession
War of 1812 Legacy (see pg. 132)
Nationalism
Second War of Independence
Jefferson, the War of 1812, Era of Good Feelings (Very Important)
Significance of Jefferson’s President (Did he live up to Democratic-Republican ideals? Was the Election of 1800 Revolutionary?)
-Kept much of Hamilton’s Economic System but repealed the excise taxes, continued Neutrality, Reduced the size of the military, eliminated federal jobs, lowed govt. spending
-Louisiana Purchase (Lewis & Clark), was it constitutional?, Judicial Impeachments of Federalist judges, Barbury Pirates, Embargo Act (dealing with British/French War), Marbury v. Madison (judicial review), Marshall Court (federal over state power/nationalistic)
Expansion into the trans-Appalachian West
-Southerners needed new land for cotton, improved transportation, cheap and available land, Louisiana Purchase led to sectionalism (Missouri Compromise), acquisition of Native American lands from War of 1812, Purchase of Florida (1819) stemming from Jackson’ raids into this Spanish territory
Native-American resistance
-Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Jackson defeats Creeks which opens up lands for new settlers), Pinckney Treaty with Spain opens up Mississippi Valley, General Anthony Wayne defeats tribes of the Ohio Valley (Treaty of Greenville) which open up Ohio Valley, William Henry Harrison defeats Prophet and Tecumseh at Battle of Thames and Tippecanoe (Indians forced to move west)
Growth of slavery and free Black Communities
-Slavery supported by Jefferson, cotton needed new lands to expand, rise of free blacks in the North and South (voluntary manumission by slaveowners)
The War of 1812 and its consequences
-Causes: War Hawks of the South and West (Calhoun and Clay) supported the war while New Englanders disliked it (Hartford Convention), impressment of US sailors, British incitement of Indians on the Western frontier, British troops not leaving posts on western frontier, Madison siding with French after Macon’s Bill
-Events: Invasion of Canada, Burning of Washington, Star Spangled Banner, Battle of New Orleans, Treaty of Ghent (ended the war)
-Significance: Federalist Party dies (Hartford Convention-set precedence for nullification and secession), Accepted Canada, Now a great power (survived two war with the greatest power), Native Americans surrendered large areas of land in the Ohio Valley and Mississippi Valley, Americans became more industrial self-sufficient, War heroes: Harrison and Jackson, future presidents, ushered in an Era of Good Feelings
Era of Good Feelings (rise of nationalism)
-Cultural Nationalism: nationalistic authors (James Fenimore Cooper), Painters (Stuart, Trumball, Peale)
-Economic Nationalism: Tariff of 1816, Clay’s American System of the 1820s (sought rise in federal govts. power), better transportation systems (canals, turnpikes, steamboats, railroads)
-Political Nationalism; The Marshall Court, Monroe Doctrine, One-Party System, Purchase of Florida
Not an Era of Good Feelings (rise of sectionalism)
-Panic of 1819, Missouri Compromise, Two-party system (Whigs v. Democrats) began to emerge following Corrupt Bargain of 1824, Indian Resistance, Slavery Revolt (Stono Rebellion,Denmark Vessey)
-Kept much of Hamilton’s Economic System but repealed the excise taxes, continued Neutrality, Reduced the size of the military, eliminated federal jobs, lowed govt. spending
-Louisiana Purchase (Lewis & Clark), was it constitutional?, Judicial Impeachments of Federalist judges, Barbury Pirates, Embargo Act (dealing with British/French War), Marbury v. Madison (judicial review), Marshall Court (federal over state power/nationalistic)
Expansion into the trans-Appalachian West
-Southerners needed new land for cotton, improved transportation, cheap and available land, Louisiana Purchase led to sectionalism (Missouri Compromise), acquisition of Native American lands from War of 1812, Purchase of Florida (1819) stemming from Jackson’ raids into this Spanish territory
Native-American resistance
-Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Jackson defeats Creeks which opens up lands for new settlers), Pinckney Treaty with Spain opens up Mississippi Valley, General Anthony Wayne defeats tribes of the Ohio Valley (Treaty of Greenville) which open up Ohio Valley, William Henry Harrison defeats Prophet and Tecumseh at Battle of Thames and Tippecanoe (Indians forced to move west)
Growth of slavery and free Black Communities
-Slavery supported by Jefferson, cotton needed new lands to expand, rise of free blacks in the North and South (voluntary manumission by slaveowners)
The War of 1812 and its consequences
-Causes: War Hawks of the South and West (Calhoun and Clay) supported the war while New Englanders disliked it (Hartford Convention), impressment of US sailors, British incitement of Indians on the Western frontier, British troops not leaving posts on western frontier, Madison siding with French after Macon’s Bill
-Events: Invasion of Canada, Burning of Washington, Star Spangled Banner, Battle of New Orleans, Treaty of Ghent (ended the war)
-Significance: Federalist Party dies (Hartford Convention-set precedence for nullification and secession), Accepted Canada, Now a great power (survived two war with the greatest power), Native Americans surrendered large areas of land in the Ohio Valley and Mississippi Valley, Americans became more industrial self-sufficient, War heroes: Harrison and Jackson, future presidents, ushered in an Era of Good Feelings
Era of Good Feelings (rise of nationalism)
-Cultural Nationalism: nationalistic authors (James Fenimore Cooper), Painters (Stuart, Trumball, Peale)
-Economic Nationalism: Tariff of 1816, Clay’s American System of the 1820s (sought rise in federal govts. power), better transportation systems (canals, turnpikes, steamboats, railroads)
-Political Nationalism; The Marshall Court, Monroe Doctrine, One-Party System, Purchase of Florida
Not an Era of Good Feelings (rise of sectionalism)
-Panic of 1819, Missouri Compromise, Two-party system (Whigs v. Democrats) began to emerge following Corrupt Bargain of 1824, Indian Resistance, Slavery Revolt (Stono Rebellion,Denmark Vessey)
“We are all Republican, we are all Federalists”
President of the gentleman farmer
-Maintained National Bank, Hamilton’s economic program of debt reduction, and carried on neutrality of both Washington & Adams (all characteristics of Federalists)
-Reduced size of military, eliminated federal jobs, repealed excise tax, lowered national debt (all characteristics of Democratic Republicans)
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
-Despite commitment to strict interpretation of the Constitution, he supported the purchase agreement (Federalist ideal)
-Strengthened his hopes on a future based on an agrarian society of independent farmers (D-R ideal)
Judicial Impeachment
-Despite Chief Justice John Marshall, a staunch Federalist, leading the Supreme Court (Marbury v. Madison, 1803), Jefferson supported a campaign of impeachment to remove partisan Federalist judges including Supreme Court judge, Samuel Chase. His attempts failed but caused Federalist judges to be less partisan.
Barbury Pirates
-Jefferson sent a small fleet of US ships to combat the higher bribes placed on the US by the Barbury states of North Africa. (Federalist ideal of strong executive power)
Challenge to US neutrality
-Jefferson attempted to adhere to the neutrality policy of Washington and Adams.
-Despite his support for the French (D-R ideal), both France and Britain blockaded enemy ports and regularly seized the ships of neutral nations, confiscating their cargoes due to the current Napoleonic Wars.
-As an alternative to war, Jefferson supported the Embargo Act (1807), prohibiting any American merchant ship from sailing to any foreign port.
-His action brought economic hardship to the US, especially New England.
-After its repeal, US ships could finally trade with other nations except Britain and France (Nonintercourse Act)
(All Federalist ideals of strong executive power)
Washington's Farewell Address
http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/farewell/
The above website should help you in with the essay contest question. Start formulating your response. This will be due on October 18.
IN HIS FAREWELL ADDRESS IN PHILADELPHIA IN 1776, GEORGE WASHINGTON WARNED AGAINST THE ADVENT OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN NATIONS WITH POPULACE-ELECTED GOVERNMENTS. DO YOU BELIEVE OUR NATION'S HISTORY SUPPORTS HIS VIEWS? EXPLAIN.
The above website should help you in with the essay contest question. Start formulating your response. This will be due on October 18.
IN HIS FAREWELL ADDRESS IN PHILADELPHIA IN 1776, GEORGE WASHINGTON WARNED AGAINST THE ADVENT OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN NATIONS WITH POPULACE-ELECTED GOVERNMENTS. DO YOU BELIEVE OUR NATION'S HISTORY SUPPORTS HIS VIEWS? EXPLAIN.
Wednesday, September 22, 2010
Washington, Adams, and Jefferson: Fact Sheet
George Washington:
• First president to implement the new Constitution, setting many precedents • Served only two terms; Cincinnatus symbol and republican ideal — government based on republican principles • Rejected monarchical titles • His stature reassured Americans about the new government • Supported the Bill of Rights • Appointed Cabinet members (War, State, Treasury, Attorney General) and members of the
Supreme Court • Supported Hamilton’s financial plan on funding, revenues, creation of Bank of the United States,
assumption of state debts • Accepted compromise on location of national capitol to assure implementation of assumption of
state debts • Generally supported broad (Federalist) interpretation of the Constitution and a strong federal government • “Proclamation of Neutrality,” choosing not to honor the French treaty of 1778; skillful handling of the Citizen Genet affair • Supported Jay Treaty to resolve conflict with Great Britain • Supported Pinckney Treaty to keep open access to Mississippi River • Remained aloof from party politics, condemning party factionalism • Put down Whiskey Rebellion and enforced collection of federal excise taxes • Sent troops into Old Northwest to control Indians on frontier • Actions in office put constitutional principles into practice • Took seriously the concept of separation of powers and took care to implement it • Farewell Address urged disentanglement and condemned parties • No major blunders or scandals during his presidency
John Adams:
• Served two terms as Vice-President • Succeeded Washington as President • Supported broad interpretation of the Constitution and a strong central government • Urged funding for military preparedness; built up US navy • Sought to avoid full-scale war with France: XYZ Affair and Convention of 1800 • Continued Hamilton’s fiscal policies • Tried to control cabinet officials and partisan extremists • Accepted defeat and took part in peaceful transition of power: “Revolution of 1800” • Alien and Sedition Acts may be mentioned as an example of threatening governmental stability • The appointment of John Marshall as Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court is a valid example of stabilizing the new government IF his long-term impact is noted..
Thomas Jefferson:
• Served as Secretary of State under Washington, 1789-1794 • Urged strict interpretation of the Constitution in the 1790s, yet proved to be flexible when in power as president • Helped organize one of the first political parties, Democratic Republicans, and would subsequently
provide leadership of the party as president • Supported states rights and limited national government • Elected Vice-President in 1796 • Opposed Alien and Sedition Acts and wrote Kentucky Resolutions condemning acts as unconstitutional
and an abuse of republicanism • Assumed presidency in 1801 in vital, peaceful transition of power • Set example of simple, modest “republican” presidency • Inaugural address urged reconciliation of political parties and set forth democratic republican principles • Limited use of spoils system; did not dismiss all Federalists currently in government • Restored naturalization law of five years; urged repeal of remaining sections of Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned those convicted under remaining sections • Continued most of Hamilton’s financial programs in terms of limited import duties, payment of national debt, land sales, and the national bank • Reduced military expenditures and other government expenses, as well as direct taxes; objective was a more frugal government • Purchased Louisiana Territory to reduce foreign threat in the West and on the Mississippi, part of the ideal of the Empire of Liberty and the creation of an agrarian republic • Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the nation, involving broad interpretation of powers allowed the federal government by the Constitution • Truce with the Barbary pirates following successful military action, which led to greater economic stability and expanded trade in the Mediterranean • Accepted decisions of the Federalist (Marshall) U.S. Supreme Court • Sponsored the Lewis and Clark expedition for multiple purposes — an example of a broad use of presidential power • Economic coercion policies, such as the Embargo Acts — kept the U.S. out of war but could also be seen as destabilizing because it polarized New England Federalists
This Date in History-Sept 22
1862 : Lincoln issues Emancipation Proclamation
On this day in 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issues a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which sets a date for the freedom of more than 3 million black slaves in the United States and recasts the Civil War as a fight against slavery.
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, shortly after Lincoln's inauguration as America's 16th president, he maintained that the war was about restoring the Union and not about slavery. He avoided issuing an anti-slavery proclamation immediately, despite the urgings of abolitionists and radical Republicans, as well as his personal belief that slavery was morally repugnant. Instead, Lincoln chose to move cautiously until he could gain wide support from the public for such a measure.
In July 1862, Lincoln informed his cabinet that he would issue an emancipation proclamation but that it would exempt the so-called border states, which had slaveholders but remained loyal to the Union. His cabinet persuaded him not to make the announcement until after a Union victory. Lincoln's opportunity came following the Union win at the Battle of Antietam in September 1862. On September 22, the president announced that slaves in areas still in rebellion within 100 days would be free.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation, which declared "that all persons held as slaves" within the rebel states "are, and henceforward shall be free." The proclamation also called for the recruitment and establishment of black military units among the Union forces. An estimated 180,000 African Americans went on to serve in the army, while another 18,000 served in the navy.
After the Emancipation Proclamation, backing the Confederacy was seen as favoring slavery. It became impossible for anti-slavery nations such as Great Britain and France, who had been friendly to the Confederacy, to get involved on behalf of the South. The proclamation also unified and strengthened Lincoln's party, the Republicans, helping them stay in power for the next two decades.
The proclamation was a presidential order and not a law passed by Congress, so Lincoln then pushed for an antislavery amendment to the U.S. Constitution to ensure its permanence. With the passage of the 13th Amendment in 1865, slavery was eliminated throughout America (although blacks would face another century of struggle before they truly began to gain equal rights).
Lincoln's handwritten draft of the final Emancipation Proclamation was destroyed in the Chicago Fire of 1871. Today, the original official version of the document is housed in the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Tuesday, September 21, 2010
Chapter 6 Terms
Chapter 6: The New Republic
George Washington
Executive Depts.
Judiciary Act of 1789
Federal Census
Alexander Hamilton
Hamilton’s Economic Plan
National Debt
Assumption
Infant Industries
National Bank
Thomas Jefferson
Funding at Par
Speculators
State-Debt Compromise
Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause
Implied v. Enumerated Powers
Loose v. Strict Construction
French Revolution
Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)
“Citizen” Edmund Genet
Jay Treaty (1794)
Impressment
Pinckney Treaty (1795)
Right of Deposit
“Mad” Anthony Wayne
Treaty of Greenville
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Excise Tax
Public Land Act (1796)
Two-Party System
Federalist Era
Political Parties
Federalist v. Democratic-Republicans (see page 109)
Washington’s Farewell Address
Political Parties
Permanent Alliances
Two-term Tradition
Election of 1796
12th Amendment
John Adams
XYZ Affair
“Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute”
Quasi-War
High Federalists
Alien & Seditions Acts
Naturalization Act
Alien Acts
Sedition Acts
KY & VA Resolutions
Compact Theory
Nullification
Navy Dept.
Election of 1800
Revolution of 1800
George Washington
Executive Depts.
Judiciary Act of 1789
Federal Census
Alexander Hamilton
Hamilton’s Economic Plan
National Debt
Assumption
Infant Industries
National Bank
Thomas Jefferson
Funding at Par
Speculators
State-Debt Compromise
Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause
Implied v. Enumerated Powers
Loose v. Strict Construction
French Revolution
Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)
“Citizen” Edmund Genet
Jay Treaty (1794)
Impressment
Pinckney Treaty (1795)
Right of Deposit
“Mad” Anthony Wayne
Treaty of Greenville
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Excise Tax
Public Land Act (1796)
Two-Party System
Federalist Era
Political Parties
Federalist v. Democratic-Republicans (see page 109)
Washington’s Farewell Address
Political Parties
Permanent Alliances
Two-term Tradition
Election of 1796
12th Amendment
John Adams
XYZ Affair
“Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute”
Quasi-War
High Federalists
Alien & Seditions Acts
Naturalization Act
Alien Acts
Sedition Acts
KY & VA Resolutions
Compact Theory
Nullification
Navy Dept.
Election of 1800
Revolution of 1800
Washington/Adams & Federalists v. D-Rs (Very Important)
Washington, Hamilton, and shaping the federal government
-Executive Department (creation of a cabinet), Federal Court system (created by Judiciary Act of 1789), Hamilton Economic Plan (Assumption of the debt, protective tariffs, national bank, excise tax, Whiskey Rebellion (showed government’s ability to put down as uprising unlike Shays’ Rebellion), Proclamation of Neutrality (dealing with French Revolution and British/French War), Jay Treaty, Pinckney Treaty, Washington warns against entangling alliance and political parties in Farewell Address
Adams (XYZ Affair, Quasi-War with France, Alien and Sedition Acts (KY & VA Resolutions)
Emergence of Political Parties (started over the debate the Constitution and the role of the federal govt.)
Federalists: Hamilton, loose interpretation of the Constitution, Pro-British, Large peacetime army & navy, Aid businesses, national bank, tariffs, Northern businessmen and large landowners, Northeast
Democratic-Republicans: Jefferson & Madison, strict interpretation, weak central govt., Pro-French, Small peacetime army and navy, favored agricultural interests, no national bank, opposed tariffs (hurt the South and farmers), skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners, later immigrants, strong in the South/West
Republican motherhood and education for women
Gained status from their Revolutionary War efforts, Abigail Adams (remember the ladies), women instilled with educating republican ideals into their children, women limited in education but southern women educated through private tutors and northern women education in public schools
-Executive Department (creation of a cabinet), Federal Court system (created by Judiciary Act of 1789), Hamilton Economic Plan (Assumption of the debt, protective tariffs, national bank, excise tax, Whiskey Rebellion (showed government’s ability to put down as uprising unlike Shays’ Rebellion), Proclamation of Neutrality (dealing with French Revolution and British/French War), Jay Treaty, Pinckney Treaty, Washington warns against entangling alliance and political parties in Farewell Address
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| John Adams |
Emergence of Political Parties (started over the debate the Constitution and the role of the federal govt.)
Federalists: Hamilton, loose interpretation of the Constitution, Pro-British, Large peacetime army & navy, Aid businesses, national bank, tariffs, Northern businessmen and large landowners, Northeast
Democratic-Republicans: Jefferson & Madison, strict interpretation, weak central govt., Pro-French, Small peacetime army and navy, favored agricultural interests, no national bank, opposed tariffs (hurt the South and farmers), skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners, later immigrants, strong in the South/West
Republican motherhood and education for women
Gained status from their Revolutionary War efforts, Abigail Adams (remember the ladies), women instilled with educating republican ideals into their children, women limited in education but southern women educated through private tutors and northern women education in public schools
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| Washington Takes the Oath: NYC 1789 |
This Date in History-Sept. 21
1780 : Benedict Arnold commits treason
On this day in 1780, during the American Revolution, American General Benedict Arnold meets with British Major John Andre to discuss handing over West Point to the British, in return for the promise of a large sum of money and a high position in the British army. The plot was foiled and Arnold, a former American hero, became synonymous with the word "traitor."
Arnold was born into a well-respected family in Norwich, Connecticut, on January 14, 1741. He apprenticed with an apothecary and was a member of the militia during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). He later became a successful trader and joined the Continental Army when the Revolutionary War broke out between Great Britain and its 13 American colonies in 1775. When the war ended in 1883, the colonies had won their independence from Britain and formed a new nation, the United States.
During the war, Benedict Arnold proved himself a brave and skillful leader, helping Ethan Allen's troops capture Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and then participating in the unsuccessful attack on British Quebec later that year, which earned him a promotion to brigadier general. Arnold distinguished himself in campaigns at Lake Champlain, Ridgefield and Saratoga, and gained the support of George Washington. However, Arnold had enemies within the military and in 1777, five men of lesser rank were promoted over him. Over the course of the next few years, Arnold married for a second time and he and his new wife lived a lavish lifestyle in Philadelphia, accumulating substantial debt. The debt and the resentment Arnold felt over not being promoted faster were motivating factors in his choice to become a turncoat.
In 1780, Arnold was given command of West Point, an American fort on the Hudson River in New York (and future home of the U.S. military academy, established in 1802). Arnold contacted Sir Henry Clinton, head of the British forces, and proposed handing over West Point and his men. On September 21 of that year, Arnold met with Major John Andre and made his traitorous pact. However, the conspiracy was uncovered and Andre was captured and executed. Arnold, the former American patriot, fled to the enemy side and went on to lead British troops in Virginia and Connecticut. He later moved to England, though he never received all of what he'd been promised by the British. He died in London on June 14, 1801.
Monday, September 20, 2010
James Madison: The Father of American Politics
James Madison is known as the Father of the Constitution, reflecting his role in planning, writing and ratifying the nation's fundamental law. This should be his month: The Constitutional Convention, where he starred, finished the document in September 1787. And Congress sent the amendments that became the Bill of Rights—which Madison also played a major role in shaping—to the states in September 1789.
But Madison has another claim on our attention. He is the father of American politics as we know it.
Madison helped establish America's first political party, the Republicans. In 1791, as a representative from Virginia, he joined Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson on a trip through upstate New York and New England, supposedly collecting biological specimens for the American Philosophical Society but actually collecting political allies for themselves. The politician they wished to combat, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, already wielded great power through his office, and hence he was somewhat slower to organize a party; when he did, it took the name Federalists.
James Madison, the fourth U.S. president
.Madison and Jefferson built better than Hamilton: the Federalists disappeared as a national party in 1816, while the old Republicans march on today as the Democrats. (The modern GOP is an unrelated organization established in 1854.)
Madison helped found the first party newspaper, the National Gazette. (The Nation, The New Republic and National Review are latter-day reincarnations.) He recruited the paper's first editor, Philip Freneau, a versifier and college chum. Jefferson gave Freneau a nominal job as a translator in the State Department and in his free time Freneau smacked Hamilton in prose.
Madison's interest in newspapers flowed from his interest in the power of public opinion. "Whatever facilitates a general intercourse of sentiments," he wrote in a December, 1791 National Gazette essay,
". . . a circulation of newspapers throughout the entire body of the people . . . is favorable to liberty." Then "every good citizen will be . . . a sentinel over the rights of the people."
Drowning in both media and poll data today, we understand the importance of regularly measuring public opinion. But in the early republic consulting public opinion was a new concept.
The Federalists had little use for it. They thought the people should rule at the polls, then let the victors do their best until the next election. Madison foresaw, and applauded, our world of 24/7 news, comment and pulse-taking before it existed.
Madison belonged to an early form of the political machine, the dynasty. America had revolted against George III and the House of Hanover, but the dynastic temptation lingered on. Federalist John Adams, our second president, saw his eldest son, John Quincy Adams, become the sixth president. But the Adamses were unpopular one-termers. Between them stretched the Virginia Dynasty—two terms of Jefferson, two terms of Madison, two terms of James Monroe—24 years of government by friends and neighbors.
The Adamses—and the Kennedys, Bushes and Clintons in our day—had dynasties of blood and marriage. Jefferson, Madison and Monroe made a dynasty of ideological brotherhood.
Not that Madison ignored the political importance of marriage. After an unhappy courtship in his early 30s, he left romance alone until he was 43, when he married a pretty widow, Dolley Payne Todd. When Madison took office as Secretary of State (in 1801) and as president in 1809, Dolley Madison became more than a hostess. She was a political wife, America's first: half a campaign tag-team, and often the better half. Gregarious and outgoing, she completed her husband's personality, which was shy and stiff except with intimates.
Martha Washington, the first First Lady, was beloved but domestic; Abigail Adams, the second, was political but abrasive. Thomas Jefferson, the third president, was a widower. As one U.S. senator put it, only Madison had "a wife to aid in his pretensions."
Madison succeeded as a political innovator because he was good at politics. He did what came naturally to him: agenda-setting, committee work, parliamentary maneuvering. He grew up in a family as large as an oyster bed—six siblings who survived childhood, numerous nieces, nephews and cousins—good training for a future legislator.
He worked at what didn't come naturally: public speaking and campaigning. His voice was weak; time and again, note-takers at debates he participated in (such as in Virginia's convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution) left blanks in his remarks or simply gave up, because Mr. Madison "could not be distinctly heard." Yet when circumstances required it, he took on the flamboyant Patrick Henry and once tangled with his friend Monroe in the open air of a snow storm so bitter he got frost bite on his nose. He won both debates.
Madison played well with others. He worked with George Washington, profiting from his charisma and judgment, and before they fell out with Hamilton, profiting from his exuberance. (Hamilton tapped Madison to contribute to the Federalist Papers, which was initially Hamilton's project; Madison wrote 29 of the 85 essays.) As president, he learned something about money and the world from his Treasury secretary, Albert Gallatin. He was a great man who was not afraid of assisting or deferring to other great men (another legacy of his tight family life). He also worked with the less-than-great: hatchetmen, gossips, wire-pullers. They do the work of politics too. They are part of the game.
James Madison helped build a republic. He was also an ambitious party activist who counted votes, stumped, spoke, scratched backs and (when necessary) stabbed them. He would not be afraid of the contrast, for his deepest thinking told him that the architects of liberty had to understand and sometimes use the ordinary political materials of ambition and self-advancement to ensure that this republic would endure.
Mr. Brookhiser is the author, most recently, of "Right Time, Right Place: Coming of Age with William F. Buckley Jr. and the Conservative Movement" (Basic Books, 2009).
Saturday, September 18, 2010
Friday, September 17, 2010
Citizenship Test
http://www.800citizen.org/us_citizenship_test/
In honor of Constitution Day, take the 50 question quiz. Please post your results. Were there questions that surprised you or found particularly difficult?
In honor of Constitution Day, take the 50 question quiz. Please post your results. Were there questions that surprised you or found particularly difficult?
Monday, September 13, 2010
Saturday, September 11, 2010
Free Responses: Chapter 4-6
Free Responses
Chapters 4-6
(2010)
Analyze the political, diplomatic, and military reasons for the US victory in the Revolutionary War. Confine your answers to the period 1775-1783.
(2009)
Analyze the ways in which British imperial policies between 1763 and 1776 intensified colonials’ resistance to British rule and their commitment to republican values.
(2009b)
Analyze how the ideas and experiences of the revolutionary era influenced the principles embodied in the Articles of Confederation.
(2008b)
Analyze the reasons for the Anti-Federalists’ opposition to ratifying the Constitution.
(2007)
Settlers in the 18th century American backcountry sometimes resorted to violent protest to express their grievances. Analyze the causes and significance of TWO of the following:
March of the Paxton Boys
Regulator Movement
Shays’ Rebellion
Whiskey Rebellion
(2007b)
The French and Indian War (1754-1763) altered the relationship between Britain and the North American colonies. Assess this change with regard to TWO of the following in the period between 1763 and 1775.
Land acquisition
Politics
Economics
(2006b)
“The United States Constitution of 1787 represented an economic and ideological victory for the traditional American political elite.” Assess the validity of this statement for the period 1781 to 1789.
(2005 DBQ)
To what extent did the American Revolution fundamentally change American society? In your answer, be sure to address the political, social, and economic effects of the Revolution in the period from 1775 to 1800.
(2004 DBQ)
In what ways did the French and Indian War (1754-63) alter the political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period 1740-1766 in constructing your response.
(1999 DBQ)
To what extent had the colonies developed a sense of identity and unity as Americans by the eve of the Revolution? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period 1750 to 1776 to answer the question.
(1985 DBQ)
“From 1781 to 1789 the Articles of Confederation provided the United States with an effective government.” Using the documents and your knowledge of the period, evaluate this statement.
(2005b)
To what extent was the United States Constitution a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation?
(1989)
“In the two decades before the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, a profound shift occurred in the way many Americans thought and felt about British government and their colonial governments.” Assess the validity of this statement in view of political and constitutional debates of these decades.
(1992)
Evaluate the relative importance of the following as factors prompting Americans to rebel in 1776:
Parliamentary taxation
Restriction of civil liberties
British military measures
The legacy of colonial religious and political ideas
(1997)
Analyze the extent to which the American Revolution represented a radical alteration in American political ideas and institutions. Confine your answer to the period 1775 to 1800.
(1996)
Analyze the degree to which the Articles of Confederation provided an effective form of government with respect to any TWO of the following.
Foreign relations
Economic conditions
Western lands
(2003)
Evaluate the extent in which the Articles of Confederation were effective in solving the problems that confronted the nation.
(2004)
Analyze the impact of the American Revolution on both slavery and the status of women in the period 1775-1800.
(1991)
The Bill of Rights did not come from a desire to protect the liberties won in the American Revolution, but rather from a fear of the powers of the new federal government. Assess the validity of this statement.
Chapters 4-6
(2010)
Analyze the political, diplomatic, and military reasons for the US victory in the Revolutionary War. Confine your answers to the period 1775-1783.
(2009)
Analyze the ways in which British imperial policies between 1763 and 1776 intensified colonials’ resistance to British rule and their commitment to republican values.
(2009b)
Analyze how the ideas and experiences of the revolutionary era influenced the principles embodied in the Articles of Confederation.
(2008b)
Analyze the reasons for the Anti-Federalists’ opposition to ratifying the Constitution.
(2007)
Settlers in the 18th century American backcountry sometimes resorted to violent protest to express their grievances. Analyze the causes and significance of TWO of the following:
March of the Paxton Boys
Regulator Movement
Shays’ Rebellion
Whiskey Rebellion
(2007b)
The French and Indian War (1754-1763) altered the relationship between Britain and the North American colonies. Assess this change with regard to TWO of the following in the period between 1763 and 1775.
Land acquisition
Politics
Economics
(2006b)
“The United States Constitution of 1787 represented an economic and ideological victory for the traditional American political elite.” Assess the validity of this statement for the period 1781 to 1789.
(2005 DBQ)
To what extent did the American Revolution fundamentally change American society? In your answer, be sure to address the political, social, and economic effects of the Revolution in the period from 1775 to 1800.
(2004 DBQ)
In what ways did the French and Indian War (1754-63) alter the political, economic and ideological relations between Britain and its American colonies? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period 1740-1766 in constructing your response.
(1999 DBQ)
To what extent had the colonies developed a sense of identity and unity as Americans by the eve of the Revolution? Use the documents and your knowledge of the period 1750 to 1776 to answer the question.
(1985 DBQ)
“From 1781 to 1789 the Articles of Confederation provided the United States with an effective government.” Using the documents and your knowledge of the period, evaluate this statement.
(2005b)
To what extent was the United States Constitution a radical departure from the Articles of Confederation?
(1989)
“In the two decades before the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, a profound shift occurred in the way many Americans thought and felt about British government and their colonial governments.” Assess the validity of this statement in view of political and constitutional debates of these decades.
(1992)
Evaluate the relative importance of the following as factors prompting Americans to rebel in 1776:
Parliamentary taxation
Restriction of civil liberties
British military measures
The legacy of colonial religious and political ideas
(1997)
Analyze the extent to which the American Revolution represented a radical alteration in American political ideas and institutions. Confine your answer to the period 1775 to 1800.
(1996)
Analyze the degree to which the Articles of Confederation provided an effective form of government with respect to any TWO of the following.
Foreign relations
Economic conditions
Western lands
(2003)
Evaluate the extent in which the Articles of Confederation were effective in solving the problems that confronted the nation.
(2004)
Analyze the impact of the American Revolution on both slavery and the status of women in the period 1775-1800.
(1991)
The Bill of Rights did not come from a desire to protect the liberties won in the American Revolution, but rather from a fear of the powers of the new federal government. Assess the validity of this statement.
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